4 Most Important Themes in the Crucible
June 22, 2024
If you鈥檝e read my other posts on Arthur Miller鈥檚 The Crucible, you know the basics of the plot 鈥� when accusations of witchcraft inflame Salem, Massachusetts, John Proctor refuses to confess and is hanged. His is the noble struggle of the rational individual against a superstitious theocracy. Miller was upfront with his intentions. In the leadup to the under-appreciated film version of the play starring Daniel Day-Lewis film, At the same time, the play isn鈥檛 merely about McCarthyism. Tthere are other tensions flowing beneath the surface of the text. In this article, I want to talk about some of the main themes of The Crucible, including state power, religion, and misogyny.听
(You can read my summaries of the text at the following links: Act One, Act Two, Act Three, and Act Four)
All page numbers reference the .听
1) From Autocracy to Democracy
The relationship between religion, power, and the state arrives early in Miller鈥檚 The Crucible. In Miller鈥檚 secondary commentary, he writes that the early Massachusetts settlers had established a community that was effectively 鈥渁utocracy by consent鈥nited top to bottom by a commonly held ideology鈥� (15). Miller argues that while this autocracy was necessary in the early days of the colony, the people in Salem in 1692 had come to expect a greater degree of personal freedom than their predecessors. In Miller鈥檚 words, 鈥渢he old disciplines were beginning to rankle鈥� (14). Growing individualism can ever only be destabilizing to a theocracy. Indeed, in Miller鈥檚 reading, the historical moment depicted in the text is 鈥渁 perverse manifestation of the panic which set in鈥hen the balance of power began to turn toward greater individual freedom鈥� (16).听
Themes in The Crucible (Continued)
What鈥檚 more, Miller argues that in this societal upheaval, religion became a cover for baser desires 鈥� both sexual and economic. Thus, according to Miller, it was now 鈥減ossible鈥atriotic and holy鈥or a man to say that Marth Corey had come into his bedroom at night, and鈥aid herself down on his chest and 鈥榥early suffocated him鈥欌�� (17). In Miller鈥檚 reading, sexual desire and sexual guilt manifested in accusations of witchery. Greed could also be expressed in these accusations. While 鈥渓and-lust鈥� had previously been limited to legal bickering, such greed 鈥渃ould now be elevated to the arena of morality鈥� (17).听
2) Religion and State Power
We can see the tension between theological and administrative power clearly at the beginning of the text. While Reverend Parris is ostensibly concerned for his daughter鈥檚 health, he is also very aware of how an accusation of witchcraft could affect his political standing in the community. We see this when he first questions Abigail. While he certainly wants to know what Abigail has done in the forest (for Betty鈥檚 sake), he鈥檚 also concerned because 鈥渟urely my enemies will [know], and they will ruin me with it鈥� (19). Even at the earliest stages of this tragedy, religion and power are intermingled.听
Reverend Parris鈥� concerns with his authority become clearer once John Proctor arrives at Parris鈥� house. After complaining about his salary and his (lack of) firewood, Parris makes his political concerns clear, accusing John Proctor of leading a 鈥渇action and a party鈥gainst him and all authority鈥� (35). Establishing his firebrand bona fides, John states, 鈥淚 like not the smell of this 鈥榓uthority鈥欌�� (35).听
Themes in The Crucible (Continued)
Miller gives a useful gloss of how the political and the religious combine to produce paranoia and, ultimately, violence. In his secondary narration, he writes that 鈥減olitical policy is equated with moral right, and opposition to it with diabolical malevolence鈥� (38). We can see from the beginning of the play that John鈥檚 disobedience has already laid the groundwork for the accusations against him. Insofar as John aligns himself against a political policy (Parris鈥� authority) his actions become 鈥渄iabolical.鈥� (You can read a detailed summary of act one of The Crucible here.)
The character of Thomas Putman provides an excellent example of the potent combination of religion and more material concerns. In Miller鈥檚 secondary narration, he presents Putman as having a 鈥渧indictive nature鈥� whose accusations seem motivated by resentment and greed. As Miller tells it, the historical Putnam, eldest son of the richest man in the village, had advanced a candidate for minister of Salem who was rejected by the community. According to Miller, this was a slight that Putnam could not let go of.
3) Danforth, 鈥淎ndover,鈥� and the Power of the State
There is perhaps no better example in the play of how religion and political power are linked than the character of Deputy Governor Danforth. While ostensibly a secular leader, his authority is explicitly theological. We see this most clearly in act three. After Francis Nurse gives Danforth a list of people who have signed their support for his wife and for Elizabeth Proctor, Danforth orders everyone on the list arrested 鈥渇or examination.鈥� Francis is horrified, but Danforth 鈥渞eassures鈥� him. He states, 鈥渁 person is either with this court or he must be counted against it, there be no road between,鈥� (85). In saner times, such a statement might be read as asking for a general support for the judicial process. Needless to say, these are not sane times.
Danforth goes on to equate the law explicitly with religion. According to Danforth, no longer is 鈥渆vil mixed with good鈥� 鈥� rather, 鈥渂y God鈥檚 grace, the shining sun is up, and them that fear not light will surely praise it鈥� (85). In Danforth鈥檚 worldview, any good Christian must necessarily be happy for the arrest, torture, and confessions elicited by this court, as the court is the infallible manifestation of God鈥檚 presence in the land. (You can read a detailed summary of act three of The Crucible here.)
Themes in The Crucible (Continued)
As act three continues, Danforth鈥檚 insistence on the Godliness of his authority becomes more explicit. When Giles Corey refuses to name a source, Reverend Hale finally says what everyone is thinking, that 鈥淭here is a prodigious fear of this court in the country鈥斺�� (88). Given that his authority derives from God, Danforth cannot be swayed, saying, 鈥渢here is fear in the country because there is a moving plot to topple Christ in the country鈥� (88). Combining state and religious authority gives Danforth absolute power but allows for no possible dissent. In other words, insofar as faith authorizes the court, any protest becomes a theological attack. (In case you believe this sort of absolutism is a relic of the past, think about the sentiment in the US that shuts down all criticism.)听
With his secondary narration, Miller provides a societal explanation for Danforth鈥檚 absolutism. According to Miller, 鈥渟ocial disorder in any age breeds鈥ystical suspicions鈥� (16). In act four, we finally see the 鈥渟ocial disorder鈥� against which Danforth struggles 鈥� 鈥淎ndover.鈥� When Danforth and Hawthorne arrive at the jail, they wonder if Reverend Hale has not been 鈥減reaching at Andover lately鈥� (109). This is no euphemism, nor is it purely fictional. During this period of witch-hysteria, Andover had more people accused of witchcraft than any other community. After several people were executed, one of the ministers in Andover formed a resistance that managed to turn public opinion against the courts. When we remember that the court is both the vessel of state power and the manifestation of Christianity in Massachusetts, we can understand why Danforth considers 鈥淎ndover鈥� such a threat.听聽
Themes in The Crucible (Continued)
The fact that the court is necessarily invested with both theological and judicial authority makes it difficult 鈥� if not impossible 鈥� to change course. We can see this lack of flexibility in act four, when Danforth refuses to pardon any of the remaining prisoners. He states that 鈥渞eprieve or pardon must cast doubt upon the guilt of them that died till now鈥� (113). In other words, insofar as the court represents the word of God, it cannot allow for any error. To do so would be to admit that the law is fundamentally a human construction rather than divine. With this in mind, it鈥檚 not surprising that Miller writes in the epilogue that after the events of The Crucible, 鈥淭o all intents and purposes, the power of theocracy in Massachusetts was broken鈥� (127).听
4) Sex, Shame, and Misogyny
I want to put in a gentle word for the character of Abigail. Hers was a difficult life, circumscribed by violence and structural misogyny. Abigail was an orphan 鈥� she saw 鈥淚ndians smash [her] dear parents鈥� heads鈥� 鈥� and was taken in by her uncle, a strict, unpopular minister (27). As a seventeen-year-old, single woman, Abigail鈥檚 options were limited to marriage and motherhood. Her dalliance with John Proctor 鈥� an established man in his mid-thirties 鈥� is marked by an extreme power asymmetry. Furthermore, once there are rumors of her harlotry in the community, her marriageability goes to nearly nil. (Remember, adultery was technically punishable by death.) Even her uncle Parris has sufficient cause to ask Abigail if her reputation is 鈥渆ntirely white鈥� in the town (20).听
Themes in The Crucible (Continued)
Given all this, it makes sense for Abigail to do anything she can to establish herself as the future Mrs. John Proctor. When she drinks Tituba鈥檚 blood-charm to kill Elizabeth Proctor, she鈥檚 making an understandable choice to pursue some measure of economic stability. Miller remarks that 鈥淪ex, sin, and the Devil were鈥inked,鈥� but, for Abigail, sex with John Proctor was one of the only ways to raise her status in the community. In other words, structural misogyny has limited Abigail’s options to such an extent that even witchcraft becomes palatable. ()听
A final note on misogyny 鈥� I can鈥檛 help but feel that John Proctor鈥檚 actions don鈥檛 come in for nearly enough condemnation. I understand that he is the tragic hero of the story, After all, it鈥檚 his resolve that ostensibly breaks the power of theocracy in Massachusetts. But still 鈥� he had sex with his 17-year-old orphan housekeeper (in a barn!). What鈥檚 more, John鈥檚 wife blames herself for John鈥檚 actions when she states, 鈥淚t needs a cold wife to prompt lechery鈥� (119). While the social mores of the time make it impossible for John鈥檚 sexual guilt to be absolved, it does feel like the women in The Crucible get short shrift.听
Wrapping Up – Themes in The Crucible
It鈥檚 no great insight to talk about John Proctor as a tragic hero. At the same time, John鈥檚 sacrifice is made all the more affecting against the thematic richness of the text. While Miller certainly intended his text to hold a mirror up to McCarthyism, he also believed in its continued relevance. For Miller, The Crucible speaks to the fact that any organization of people must be founded 鈥渙n the idea of exclusion and prohibition鈥� (16). It鈥檚 up to every society in every age to figure out if the benefits of this repression have become too much.听 If you鈥檝e found this article useful or interesting, I鈥檝e also written on 1984, The Great Gatsby, Hamlet, and Brave New World.听
